The human soul weighs 21 grams

The human soul weighs 21 grams. In 1907, Dr Duncan MacDougall proposed that the soul–if it were material–should have a measurable mass. He conducted a series of experiments to weigh the human soul, as it leaves a dying body, by measuring the change in body weight of six terminally-ill patients. One of the patients studied, lost 21 grams at the moment of death. When Dr MacDougall repeated his experiment with fifteen dogs, none of the dead dogs lost weight. MacDougall’s observation seemed to confirm the contemporary belief that animals did not have souls.

When MacDougall’s research was published, fellow doctor Augustus P. Clarke criticised the findings, explaining that the lost weight resulted from sweat and moisture evaporation. Clarke concluded that a sudden rise in body temperature at death was due to the lungs no longer cooling the blood. Dogs, lacking sweat glands, do not sweat but cool themselves by panting.

Not flustered by the doubters, MacDougall moved on to try and photograph the departing soul from a moribund body. It was by no means an original idea. William H. Mumler ran a profitable spirit photography business in the 1860s until he was brought to trial for fraud in 1869. The trial destroyed Mumler’s business and he died in poverty. Unlike Mumler, Dr MacDougall was unable to produce any photographs of the supernatural.

The Limits of Predictability in Medicine: Embracing Uncertainty

Modern medicine is often perceived as a field that offers solutions, certainty, and control over human health. Patients seek diagnoses expecting clarity, and treatments anticipating measurable improvement. However, the reality is far messier. Medicine, unlike linear sciences such as Newtonian physics, operates in a domain of overwhelming complexity, uncertainty, and individual variability. Thinking that we can predict individual health outcomes with any meaningful precision is not just misguided—it is an expression of misplaced hubris or perhaps an unwillingness to confront the unsettling truth that no intervention comes with a guarantee.

The Myth of Predictability

In an ideal world, each treatment would reliably produce predictable outcomes: a medication would always lower blood pressure, a surgery would always fix a problem, and a vaccine would provide universal immunity. But the idea that we can map human health outcomes with precision is an illusion. While clinical trials, statistics, and medical guidelines offer broad patterns and general probabilities, these insights break down at the level of the individual. No two patients are identical, and every person’s response to a treatment is shaped by a multitude of factors—many of which are either unknown, immeasurable, or beyond the control of clinicians.

This unpredictability contrasts sharply with the orderliness of traditional sciences, where systems like gravity or motion behave according to well-defined laws. Medicine is far closer to a complex adaptive system—a chaotic web of interacting components, from genetics and lifestyle to environment and behavior. Trying to make individual-level predictions in medicine is akin to predicting the path of a single drop of rain in a storm. Even with all the available tools and knowledge, the forces at play are far too complex and interconnected to yield certainty.

Medicine: More Chaotic than Chaos

Medical science is often compared to chaotic systems like weather patterns, where small changes can have unpredictable effects. But in many ways, medicine is more chaotic than chaos theory systems. Traditional chaotic systems, such as the weather or fluid dynamics, are still governed by underlying rules—deterministic equations that, in theory, would allow prediction if we had enough data. Medicine, by contrast, lacks a fixed set of rules. Each person’s biology is unique, and outcomes are shaped by interactions between biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors, all of which vary widely from one individual to the next. This makes it impossible to construct neat predictive models for health outcomes.

Furthermore, human health outcomes are influenced by emergent behaviors and feedback loops, where outcomes are not simply the sum of individual components. For example, a patient with diabetes may respond differently to the same medication based on their lifestyle, diet, or mental health—factors that evolve over time. A medication might work today but lose effectiveness tomorrow as the body adapts. Human behavior, too, is a wild card, with compliance, motivation, and environmental context all influencing outcomes in ways that defy simple prediction. Medicine, then, is not just chaotic—it operates in a space that is fundamentally uncertain and unpredictable.

The Hubris of Believing in Certainty

The belief that we can predict outcomes reflects a kind of hubris—a false confidence in the power of science and medicine. This hubris may stem from fear: if we admit that we cannot guarantee that something will help, the uncertainty becomes overwhelming. Patients and doctors alike may prefer the comfort of believing that if the right diagnosis is made and the right treatment given, success will follow. But medicine is not about guarantees; it is about probabilities. The number needed to treat (NNT) for most medications—often in the double or even triple digits—reminds us that many patients will not benefit from a given intervention, even when the science is sound.

This unpredictability can be unsettling. It is easier to cling to the belief that medicine is an exact science than to confront the truth that much of it involves trial and error. A treatment may work brilliantly for one patient and fail miserably for another, even when both present with the same symptoms and receive the same care. In this light, our attempts to control health outcomes reflect not just arrogance but perhaps also a fear of admitting how little control we truly have.

Embracing the Limits of Medicine

Recognizing the inherent unpredictability of medicine is not an admission of failure—it is an acceptance of reality. Rather than striving for impossible certainty, both doctors and patients must learn to navigate uncertainty with humility and adaptability. Medicine must evolve to focus not on guarantees but on managing risk, improving probabilities, and responding to individual needs as they arise.

This shift in mindset also emphasizes the importance of personalized care. While statistical models and clinical guidelines offer valuable insights, the art of medicine lies in knowing when to adapt those models to the unique context of each patient. The patient sitting in front of a doctor is not an abstract statistic; they are a complex individual whose outcome cannot be fully predicted by a study.

Conclusion

In the end, the belief that we can reliably predict health outcomes on an individual scale is a comforting but dangerous illusion. No intervention—no pill, surgery, or therapy—comes with a guarantee. Medicine, like life, is marked by uncertainty and complexity, where outcomes emerge from a tangled web of influences. Rather than clinging to the illusion of predictability, we must embrace the limits of medicine with humility. It is only by acknowledging what we cannot control that we can focus on what truly matters: caring for patients in the face of uncertainty, improving the odds where we can, and adapting to the outcomes—whatever they may be.

Oxo

When I was little, visiting my great-grandmother’s kitchen was like stepping into a world of culinary wonders and comforting aromas. One of the most fascinating objects in that kitchen was a small, shiny Oxo cube. To my young eyes, it was a magical ingredient, almost like a culinary gemstone wrapped in foil. My great-grandmother would use it to transform water into a rich, savory broth, adding depth to her soups and stews. I would watch in awe as the little cube dissolved, filling the air with a mouthwatering scent that seemed to embody the essence of home-cooked comfort.

The Oxo cube has an interesting backstory that extends beyond the kitchen. It was originally developed in the late 19th century by a German chemist named Justus von Liebig. Liebig was a pioneer in the field of organic chemistry and was particularly interested in nutrition. He created a concentrated meat extract, which was initially marketed as a medicinal product. This “meat tea” was believed to have restorative properties, making it especially popular among the sick and malnourished. It was considered a valuable source of nourishment at a time when access to fresh meat could be limited, and the extract was used in hospitals and even recommended for the weak or convalescing.

Liebig’s extract eventually evolved into the Oxo cube. The product became more widely accessible and was marketed as a convenient way to add flavor to dishes. What started as a health product transformed into a culinary staple, beloved by home cooks around the world for its ability to enhance the taste of everyday meals. We can also thank Liebig for indirectly giving us the savory delight of Marmite, a product that owes its existence to his pioneering work in food chemistry.

It’s amazing to think that something as simple as a little cube can have such a rich history, bridging the gap between medicine and cuisine. The Oxo cube in my great-grandmother’s kitchen was more than just a flavor enhancer; it was a connection to the past and a testament to how food and medicine have been intertwined throughout history. It’s a reminder that even the most ordinary things can have extraordinary stories behind them, adding a little magic to our everyday lives.

Far From An Orgone Conclusion

Wilhelm Reich (1897-1957), an Austrian psychoanalyst and scientist, left an indelible yet contentious mark on various fields, ranging from psychoanalysis to biophysics. He is best known for his concept of “orgone energy,” a theory that has fascinated and polarized scholars and practitioners alike. This article delves into Reich’s life, his groundbreaking yet controversial theories, and the lasting impact of his work.

Early Life and Career

Background

Birth and Education: Wilhelm Reich was born on March 24, 1897, in Galicia, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Ukraine). He studied medicine at the University of Vienna, where he became a disciple of Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis

Freudian Influence: Reich began his career within the Freudian framework, focusing on the role of sexuality in human psychology. As a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, he made significant contributions to the understanding of neuroses and character structures.
Character Analysis: Reich’s seminal work, “Character Analysis” (1933), introduced the concept of character armor, proposing that psychological defenses manifest physically in the body.

Development of Orgone Energy

Theory of Orgone Energy

Concept: Reich posited the existence of a universal life force called “orgone energy,” which he believed permeated all living matter and was essential for health and vitality. This energy, he suggested, was akin to ancient concepts like “prana” or “chi.”
Discovery: He claimed to have observed orgone energy while studying the bioelectrical charge of cells and the emotional expressions of his patients.

Orgone Accumulators

Invention: Reich developed devices known as orgone accumulators—boxes made of alternating layers of organic and inorganic materials. He believed these could concentrate orgone energy from the environment and enhance physical and mental health when one sat inside them.
Applications: Reich asserted that orgone accumulators could treat various ailments, including cancer, and improve overall well-being.
Commercial Motivation: Motivated by a belief in the therapeutic potential of his devices and perhaps a desire for financial gain, Reich sold orgone accumulators to the public, making significant claims about their health benefits.

Controversy and Legal Issues

Scientific and Public Reaction

Skepticism: Reich’s theories faced substantial skepticism from the scientific community, which cited a lack of empirical evidence to support the existence of orgone energy.
Supporters: Despite the controversy, Reich had a number of devoted followers who believed in the therapeutic potential of his methods.

Legal Troubles

FDA Investigation: In the 1950s, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) investigated Reich’s practices, particularly his health claims about orgone accumulators. The FDA ultimately deemed his devices fraudulent and dangerous.
Court Orders: In 1954, a federal court ordered the destruction of Reich’s orgone accumulators and related literature. Reich defied the order, leading to his arrest and imprisonment in 1956 for contempt of court.
Death: Reich died in prison on November 3, 1957, from heart failure

Cloudbusting

Cloudbuster Device: Reich invented a device called the “cloudbuster,” which he claimed could manipulate weather patterns by drawing orgone energy from the atmosphere. This invention inspired the song “Cloudbusting” by Kate Bush, with its music video featuring Donald Sutherland as Reich.

Medical Mesmer Up

Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) was an Austrian physician whose ideas and practices gave rise to the term “mesmerism,” which later evolved into what we know today as hypnotism. Mesmer’s theories about healing and the mind-body connection were groundbreaking yet controversial during his time.

Animal Magnetism:

Theory: Mesmer proposed that a natural energy, which he called “animal magnetism,” flowed through all living things. He believed this energy could be harnessed and directed to heal various ailments.
Healing Practice: Mesmer used techniques such as passing his hands over patients’ bodies or using magnets to direct this energy. He claimed that these practices could cure everything from physical pain to psychological disorders.

The Baquet:

Invention: Mesmer invented a device called the “baquet,” a large tub filled with water and iron filings, with rods extending from it. Multiple patients would sit around the baquet, holding the rods, as Mesmer or his assistants conducted the session.
Group Healing: The baquet sessions were often conducted in a group setting, which Mesmer believed enhanced the collective energy and healing potential.

Public and Medical Community Reaction:

Popularity: Mesmer’s treatments became very popular, particularly among the upper classes in Paris. People were fascinated by the dramatic effects and the mysterious nature of his practices.
Skepticism and Criticism: The medical community was highly skeptical of Mesmer’s theories. In 1784, a commission of scientists, including Benjamin Franklin and Antoine Lavoisier, investigated Mesmer’s methods and concluded that any positive effects were due to the power of suggestion rather than any “magnetic fluid.”

Legacy and Influence:

Hypnotism: Although Mesmer’s theory of animal magnetism was discredited, his work laid the foundation for the development of hypnotism. James Braid, a Scottish surgeon, coined the term “hypnotism” in the 1840s and built on Mesmer’s ideas, focusing on the psychological rather than the mystical aspects.
Psychotherapy: Mesmer’s emphasis on the mind-body connection and the power of suggestion influenced the development of modern psychotherapy. His work can be seen as an early precursor to techniques used in cognitive-behavioral therapy and other forms of mental health treatment.

Cultural Impact:

Mesmer and his practices have been referenced in various works of literature and art, often highlighting the mysterious and controversial nature of his work. For example, his influence can be seen in Goethe’s “Faust” and in numerous 19th-century novels and plays.
Mesmer’s treatments were so popular that even Marie Antoinette was said to have shown interest in them. However, Mesmer’s success and his methods also made him many enemies in the medical establishment.
Mesmer was known for his charismatic personality and theatrical approach to healing sessions, which likely contributed to the strong placebo effect experienced by many of his patients.

Blue Mass

Blue mass was a popular medicine in the 19th century, most famously used by President Abraham Lincoln. It was a concoction primarily made from mercury, along with other ingredients like licorice root, rose water, honey, and sugar. It was used to treat a wide range of ailments, including constipation, tuberculosis, toothaches, and even depression.

Here are some fascinating points about blue mass:

Mercury Content

The primary active ingredient in blue mass was mercury, which we now know is highly toxic. At the time, its potential dangers were not fully understood.

Widespread Use

Blue mass was prescribed for various conditions, reflecting the limited understanding of medicine during that era. It was believed to balance bodily humors and treat “melancholia,” what we might now call depression.

Abraham Lincoln’s Use

President Lincoln reportedly took blue mass to combat what is believed to be depression. However, there are accounts suggesting that he stopped using it because he noticed it made him irritable and erratic.

Mercury Poisoning

Long-term use of blue mass could lead to mercury poisoning, with symptoms including tremors, memory loss, and mood swings. These adverse effects would eventually contribute to its decline in use as medical understanding progressed.

Historical Context

The use of mercury-based medicines like blue mass reflects the trial-and-error nature of early medical practices. It wasn’t until much later that the harmful effects of mercury were widely recognized, leading to the discontinuation of such treatments.

From Mice to Men: The Implications of Shrinking Spaces on Human Behavior

Introduction

In the late 1960s, American ethologist John B. Calhoun conducted a series of experiments that would later resonate far beyond the confines of his laboratory. His research, particularly Universe 25, examined the effects of overpopulation on behavior within a controlled environment of mice. The term “behavioral sink” emerged from these studies, describing a collapse in behavioral norms and a surge in destructive activities due to extreme population density. Today, the concept of the behavioral sink offers a compelling lens through which we can examine the shrinking personal and privacy spaces in human societies, intensified by both physical proximity in urban settings and the pervasive reach of digital technology.

The Behavioral Sink and Its Implications

The behavioral sink observed in Universe 25 occurred when the mice population reached a threshold beyond which normal social behaviors disintegrated. Mice exhibited social withdrawal, aggression, and a host of abnormal behaviors, including neglect of young and failure to reproduce. For humans, similar patterns can emerge in overcrowded cities and hyper-connected digital realms, where the mass of interactions can lead to social overload, decreased community involvement, and a sense of isolation amidst the crowd.

Shrinking Physical Personal Space

Urbanization and exponential population growth have drastically reduced physical personal space, with people packed into bustling cities and tiny living quarters. This compression of physical space not only raises stress levels but also amplifies everyday conflicts, contributing to social unrest and psychological distress. The parallels to Calhoun’s mice, overwhelmed by their environment, are stark, as humans navigate the concrete jungles of modern metropolises.

Diminishing Privacy in the Digital Realm

In parallel to physical constraints, the digital age has encroached upon personal privacy, with nearly every action traceable and recordable. Social media platforms and digital communication tools blur the lines between public and private, allowing others a glimpse into what was once considered personal or confidential. This digital crowding, much like the physical, creates an environment where anonymity is a relic, and everyone is both observer and observed, leading to a potential behavioral sink where private life is publicly dissected.

Behavioral and Societal Consequences

The behavioral sink effects in humans—increased anxiety, depression, and a lack of genuine, supportive relationships—mirror those seen in Calhoun’s mice. Overcrowding and lack of privacy can also drive societal shifts, such as decreased social cohesion and an erosion of community values. The rise in mental health issues and the changing landscape of interpersonal relationships highlight the profound impact of our densely populated, closely watched world.

Coping Mechanisms and Solutions

Despite these challenges, humans have begun to adapt. From the proliferation of digital detoxes and mindfulness practices to innovations in urban planning that prioritize green spaces and community hubs, there is a movement towards reclaiming personal space. Legal frameworks are also evolving to protect personal data and privacy, reflecting a societal acknowledgment of these pressing issues. These solutions, while in their infancy, are vital to preventing the behavioral sink Calhoun warned us about.

Conclusion

The behavioral sink concept from Universe 25 offers a valuable framework for understanding the implications of our shrinking personal spaces. As we navigate our crowded, observed lives, the lessons from Calhoun’s experiment are clear: without intervention, the pressures of modern living could lead to a significant deterioration in social norms and individual well-being. Addressing these issues proactively is crucial to maintaining the fabric of society and ensuring that our future does not mirror the dystopian outcomes observed in Calhoun’s experimental microcosms.

“Running Too Far? The Surprising Paradox of Endurance Exercise and Heart Health”

People often think that if you exercise a lot over a long time, especially if you do hard workouts like running ultramarathons, you will protect your heart. But a recent study called Master@Heart suggests this might not always be the case.

Researchers found that folks who have been doing endurance exercises their whole life actually had more gunk built up in their arteries, compared to folks who are fit and healthy but don’t do extreme exercise. This build-up, called plaques, can increase the risk of heart disease. And it didn’t matter what type of plaque it was; all types seemed to be more common in the long-term exercisers.

This surprising discovery was presented at a big meeting of heart doctors in March 2023, called the American College of Cardiology Scientific Session/World Congress of Cardiology. The study was also published online in a reputable medical journal called the European Heart Journal.

Ruben De Bosscher, the lead researcher from Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium, summed up the findings by saying that the study consistently found more plaque in the arteries of those who’ve been doing endurance exercises their whole life, no matter the type of plaque. “The study does nicely illustrate that exercise does not make you immune from heart disease. There is increasing evidence that there may be a point of diminished returns ― and at a certain point, an increased cardiovascular risk is seen in endurance athletes.”

The Masters@Heart study serves as a reminder that the path to health doesn’t always follow the law of ‘more is better’. It underscores the need for a balanced approach, where we respect the boundaries of our bodies, understanding that pushing those limits too far may have repercussions that contradict our original intent. More exercise is not necessarily better, just as more water does not necessarily equate to optimal hydration (hyponatremia, a condition characterized by low sodium levels in the blood, is a concern among endurance athletes. It typically occurs when athletes, afraid of dehydration, consume excessive amounts of fluids leading to dilution of sodium in their bodies. In severe cases, overhydration can be life-threatening).

Sometimes, less is indeed more.

“Criminal Sole-Searching: The Doctors and Big Nose George”

Big Nose George Parrot, an infamous desperado of a lawless band, terrorized the peaceful landscapes of Wyoming’s Powder River region, primarily targeting pay wagons and stagecoaches. The gang’s criminal ambition swelled to such a point that they plotted to derail a Union Pacific train near Medicine Bow, a plan that was luckily detected and thwarted by a vigilant crew.

Local law enforcement was mobilized to hunt down the gang members but, when two officers tracked them to Rattlesnake Canyon at Elk Mountain, they fell victim to the outlaws’ bullets. The gang scattered, evading capture by fleeing in different directions. The Union Pacific Railroad, seeking justice, ramped up efforts to catch these killers, placing a hefty bounty on their heads.

In a twist of fate, Big Nose George was apprehended in Miles City, Montana, not by pursuers but through his own drunken revelry. As he bragged about his criminal exploits, the locals seized their chance and sent a telegraph to alert authorities. In July 1880, Sheriff Rankin of Carbon County made the journey to Montana to escort George back to Wyoming to face trial.

George was condemned to the gallows on December 15, 1880, the sentence scheduled to be carried out on April 2, 1881. However, George would not await death idly. On March 22, he attempted an escape that ended in a struggle with Jailer Robert Rankin, injuring both men. Mrs. Rankin’s timely intervention with a firearm put an end to George’s freedom bid.

Word of the daring escape attempt spread like wildfire, stirring up a group of masked vigilantes. Fueled by anger, they overran the jail, seizing George and dragging him to a telegraph pole on Front Street. After two unsuccessful attempts, they finally succeeded in hanging him. His lifeless body was left suspended for hours before being removed by an undertaker.

With no next of kin to claim George’s remains, two local physicians, Doctors Thomas Maghee and John Osborne, seized the opportunity to study his brain, hoping to uncover the roots of his criminal tendencies. Lillian Heath, a young assistant to Dr. Maghee, bore witness to this unorthodox investigation.

The physicians dissected George’s skull but found his brain to be unremarkably similar to an average one. Dr. Osborne, however, ventured further into the macabre. He first fashioned a death mask from George’s face, then had the skin from George’s thighs and chest transformed into a pair of shoes and a medicine bag by a Denver tannery. To the dismay of Dr. Osborne, the shoes arrived without nipples, yet he wore them with pride nonetheless.

George’s remaining body parts were stored in a whiskey barrel filled with a salt solution and Dr. Osborne continued his morbid studies before finally interring the barrel and its grim contents in the yard behind Dr. Maghee’s office.

Despite his bizarre treatment of George’s remains, Dr. Osborne rose to local political prominence. He was elected the first Democratic Governor of Wyoming in 1892 and was even rumored to have donned the macabre shoes made from George’s skin to his inaugural ball in 1893. Later, he served under President Wilson as the Assistant Secretary of State.

George’s skull cap eventually ended up with Lillian Heath, who went on to be Wyoming’s first female physician. Over the years, the grim memento served as both an ashtray and a doorstop in her office, a curious keepsake from the intriguing tale of Big Nose George Parrot.

Source: https://www.legendsofamerica.com/wy-bignose/

“The Great Hot Dog Water Hoax: A Sizzling Tale of Gullibility and Wellness”

In 2018, in the lively city of Vancouver, performance artist Douglas Bevans undertook a peculiar experiment. His goal was to illuminate the gullibility that underlies much of the wellness movement. His tool for this grand revelation? A product as absurd as it was inventive – hot dog water.

Bevans pitched his tent at the Car Free Day Festival, peddling his unorthodox health elixir – bottles of hot dog water – at an astonishing $38 each. The bottles, each one housing a floating hot dog, were presented as “keto-compatible,” and as potent catalysts for weight loss.

But Bevans didn’t stop there. His wellness repertoire also boasted hot dog water lip balm, breath spray, and even a body fragrance. He promised that his products would augment brain function, induce weight loss, and even restore a youthful appearance. His lip balm, he claimed, was the ultimate remedy for crow’s feet.

“We noticed that some people were rubbing lip balm on their crow’s feet and they were swearing their crow’s feet were disappearing before their eyes,” Bevans remarked. One customer, after applying the balm to his balding scalp, insisted it was promoting hair growth, providing photographic evidence to support his claim.

In the grand scheme of his elaborate performance, Bevans managed to sell an astonishing total of 60 liters of his unconventional Hot Dog Water.

Yet Bevans’ true intentions were not profit-driven. Concealed in the fine print of his product brochure was the revelation – it was all a hoax. This was a satirical performance designed to expose the susceptibility of consumers to baseless health claims and pseudoscience within the wellness industry.

Bevan’s hot dog water gimmick not only grabbed the world’s attention but also sparked a conversation, making us think about the irrationality of the wellness movement, and urging us to question the validity of the wellness industry’s claims before we gulp down another bottle of, say, hot dog water.